A Survey of the Background and Development of English Literature from the Earliest Time to Eighteen Century

A Survey of the Background and Development of English Literature from the Earliest Time to Eighteen Century Contents 1. What is Literature? 2. Why the Knowledge of English Literature’s history is important 3. Distinct phases from Earliest to Modern Age 4. Brief survey of ages before Eighteen Century †¢ Anglo-Saxon period †¢ The Medieval period †¢ The Renaissance period †¢ The Puritan period †¢ The Restoration period 5. A panorama of Eighteen century †¢ General view of eighteen century †¢ Social aspects †¢ Religious aspects †¢ Characteristics of eighteen century †¢ Literary Critics of the age †¢ Chronology of the writers of the ageWhat is Literature? The production of written works, having excellence of form or expression and dealing with ideas of permanent interest is called literature. Literature is one of the Fine Arts like, †¢ Music †¢ Dance †¢ Painting †¢ Sculpture. As it is meant to give aesthetic pleasure rather than serve any utilitarian purpose. It consists of great writings which, what ever their subjects are , notable for literary form or expression. Life, Society and Nature are the subject matters of literature. There is an intimate connection between literature and life, which provides the raw material on which literature imposes an artistic form.Why the Knowledge of English Literature’s history is important? English literature is one of the richest literatures of the world, the literature of a great nation which has vitality, rich verity and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the modern times, have left their stamp on English literature thus in order to appreciate the true sense and taste of literature the knowledge of various phases of English literature, English society and political history of the land is essential.When we study the history of English lite rature from the earliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics. These phases may be termed as â€Å"Ages† or â€Å"Periods† and divided into different section according to their characteristics. There are five ways to identify the different eras of English Literature. Distinct phases from Earliest to Modern Age: 1. Phases which are named after the Central Literary figures. †¢ Chaucer †¢ Shakespeare †¢ Milton †¢ Dryden †¢ Pope †¢ Johnson †¢ Wordsworth †¢ Tennyson †¢ Hardy : Periods named after the Rulers of the time. †¢ Elizabethan Age †¢ The Jacobean period †¢ The Age of Queen Anne †¢ The Victorian Age †¢ The Georgian Period 3: simple partitions named after literary movements †¢ Classical Age †¢ Romantic Age 4: While other after certain important historical eras as, †¢ Anglo-Saxon period †¢ The Medieval peri od †¢ The Renaissance period †¢ The Puritan period †¢ The Restoration period 5: Named by the span of Time †¢ The Seventeen Century Literature †¢ Eighteen Century Literature †¢ Nineteenth Century Literature †¢ Twentieth Century LiteratureBrief survey of ages before Eighteen Century: The Old English Period or the Anglo-Saxon Period refers to the literature produced from the invasion of Celtic England by Germanic tribes in the first half of the fifth century to the conquest of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror. During the Old English Period, written literature began to develop from oral tradition, and in the eighth century poetry written in the vernacular Anglo-Saxon (also known as Old English) appeared. One of the most well-known eighth century Old English pieces of literature is Beowulf, a great Germanic epic poem.Two poets of the Old English Period who wrote on biblical and religious themes was Caedmon and Cynewulf. The Middle English Period consists of the literature produced in the four and a half centuries between the Norman Conquest of 1066 and about 1500, when the standard literary language, derived from the dialect of the London area, became recognizable as â€Å"modern English. † Prior to the second half of the fourteenth century, vernacular literature consisted primarily of religious writings. The second half of the fourteenth century produced the first great age of secular literature.The most widely known of these writings are Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur. While the English Renaissance began with the ascent of the House of Tudor to the English throne in 1485, the English Literary Renaissance began with English humanists such as Sir Thomas More and Sir Thomas Wyatt. In addition, the English Literary Renaissance consists of four subsets: The Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Age, the Caroline Age, and the Commonwealt h Period (which is also known as the Puritan Interregnum).The Elizabethan Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of Elizabeth I, 1558 – 1603. During this time, medieval tradition was blended with Renaissance optimism. Lyric poetry, prose, and drama were the major styles of literature that flowered during the Elizabethan Age. Some important writers of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Ben Jonson. The Jacobean Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of James I, 1603 – 1625.During this time the literature became sophisticated, somber, and conscious of social abuse and rivalry. The Jacobean Age produced rich prose and drama as well as the King James translation of the Bible. Shakespeare and Jonson wrote during the Jacobean Age, as well as John Donne, Francis Bacon, and Thomas Middleton. The Caroline Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of Charles I, 1625  œ 1649. The writers of this age wrote with refinement and elegance. This era produced a circle of poets known as the â€Å"Cavalier Poets† and the dramatists of this age were the last to write in the Elizabethan tradition.The Commonwealth Period, also known as the Puritan Interregnum, of English Literature includes the literature produced during the time of Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell. This period produced the political writings of John Milton, Thomas Hobbes' political treatise Leviathan, and the prose of Andrew Marvell. In September of 1642, the Puritans closed theatres on moral and religious grounds. For the next eighteen years the theatres remained closed, accounting for the lack of drama produced during this time period.The Neoclassical Period of English literature (1660 – 1785) was much influenced by contemporary French literature, which was in the midst of its greatest age. The literature of this time is known for its use of philosophy, reason, skepticism, wit , and refinement. The Neoclassical Period also marks the first great age of English literary criticism. Much like the English Literary Renaissance, the Neoclassical Period can be divided into three subsets: the Restoration, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Sensibility.The Restoration, 1660 – 1700, is marked by the restoration of the monarchy and the triumph of reason and tolerance over religious and political passion. The Restoration produced an abundance of prose and poetry and the distinctive comedy of manners known as Restoration comedy. It was during the Restoration that John Milton published Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. Other major writers of the era include John Dryden, John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester, and John Locke. The English Augustan Age derives its name from the brilliant literary period of Virgil and Ovid under the Roman emperor Augustus (27 B. C. – A.D. 14). In English literature, the Augustan Age, 1700 – 1745, refers to literature with t he predominant characteristics of refinement, clarity, elegance, and balance of judgment. Well-known writers of the Augustan Age include Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and Daniel Defoe. A significant contribution of this time period included the release of the first English novels by Defoe, and the â€Å"novel of character,† Pamela, by Samuel Richardson in 1740. During the Age of Sensibility, literature reflected the worldview of Enlightenment and began to emphasize instinct and feeling, rather than judgment and restraint.A growing sympathy for the Middle Ages during the Age of Sensibility sparked an interest in medieval ballads and folk literature. Another name for this period is the Age of Johnson because the dominant authors of this period were Samuel Johnson and his literary and intellectual circle. This period also produced some of the greatest early novels of the English language, including Richardson's Clarissa (1748) and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1749). General vie w of eighteen century:In history English literature the period of over one hundred years from (1660-1789) is variously termed as Augustan Age, Pseudo-classical age or Neo-Classical; Age, and age of Queen Anne. Matthew Arnold as Age of Prose and Reason it is also knows as age of Good Sense, age of Good Taste and age of Right Reason. The term Augustan was chosen by the writers of eighteenth century themselves, who saw in Pope, Addison, Swift, Johnson, Burke, the modern parallels to Horace, Virgil, Cicero and other brilliant writers who made roman literature famous during the reign of Emperor Augustus.Eighteen century is called new Classical age on the account of three reasons: a) The writers of eighteen century tried to follow the noble and simple methods of great ancients like Homer and Virgil that’s why they were called Neoclassicist. b) During eighteen century there was an abundance of literary productions there for critics termed as neoclassical age. c) During this period E nglish rebelled against the exaggerated and fantastic style of writing prevalent during the Elizabethan and Puritan ages and they demanded that Poetry, Drama and Prose should follow exact rules. n this they were influenced by French writers specially Boileau and Rapin. Therefore this period is known as neoclassical age. In eighteen century there was a completion of the reaction against Elizabethan romanticism. This reaction had started in seventeen century with Denham, Waller and Drden. Eighteen Century is the age of social, political, religious and literary controversies. Critical; spirit was aboard and men stop taking things for granted. Great stress was on reason and intellect sin. Notice the difference in age between Franklin and Edwards. 706 for Franklin and 1703 for Edwards. They are only three years apart, but they live in different eras. It was a choice that they made. You can be like Jonathan Edwards even now, and some people are. Ben Franklin is part of new movement, one t hat arises in Europe then moves out from there. This is called the Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason or the Neo-Classical Era. –   This period goes by the names â€Å"the Enlightenment,† â€Å"the Age of Reason,† and â€Å"the Neo-Classical Age. †   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   – There was a great turning away from religion as primary way of life. People had been caught up in religious schism and sometimes outright warfare from 1534, the year Henry VIII split away from the Catholic church, until the Glorious Revolution of 1589. England now turned its attention to politics and scientific/logical analysis & reason. – Belief had been based on authority; restoration brought the scientific method. – Scientific method – beliefs should be proven through repeated experiments. Until now, one was to trust the pronouncements of some authority. In religion, you accepted the dictates of the church; in science, you would turn to a r ecognized authority like Aristotle, Ptolemy, etc.Your own experience could mislead you. Chaucer's Wife of Bath trusted experience over authority, but she was wrong to do so. In this era, she would be right. †¢ Copernicus & Galileo trusted their own experience, their observations of the stars, over the authority of Ptolemy. They concluded that the world circled the sun rather than the other way around. †¢ Newton discovered the laws of gravity, motion, & created a new branch of mathematics – calculus. A valid experiment would be repeatable. Thus others who turned telescopes toward the skies should observe the same things Copernicus & Galileo did. people wanted proof; did not want to accept an idea as true just because some person of authority said. The big name for the Enlightenment is Sir Isaac Newton. He discovered gravity; this is the calculus branch of mathematics. Newton was a great thinker. He discovered the idea of gravity that bodies attract to one another bas ed on their mass. He discovered a principle, why things fall to the earth. For Edwards, you fell to the earth because of God. Now we have another explanation, a natural explanation, it is the pull of gravity.In the religion of these people, once you discover the way that the planets move around the sun and the reason of this is gravity, then you eliminate the need for supernatural intervention. In the Ptolemaic system understood by the medieval Christian, angels were responsible for that making the sun, the moon, and the stars go around. Could an angel be up on the moon pushing it? Is there any way to disprove it? It could be possible, we cannot disprove it. Do we really think there are angels? No, because gravity was a sufficient explanation. We do not need the angels anymore; we have gravity now.They could be there but they aren’t necessary. In the idea of cutting away that which is unnecessary, moving from that which is complex to that which is simple in science is not as Occam’s razor. Occam was an English priest and a scientist. Occam’s razor is the idea that you cut away any unneeded part of your hypothesis. The thrust of Enlightenment was to search for natural explanations for things in the scientific method. The idea of supernatural becomes something of a scandal, something of a great difficulty; why would God need to intervene?If Mars was doing loops out there, then God would need to do so, but He made a more simple and elegant system which operates on its own. The universe is like a giant clock and God is the master clock maker. In this period, they loved to make clocks. Clocks were emblematic of the universe. You could tell time by the way the planets move around the sun. They’re only in this position every so many years. Based on that, if you’ve been out time traveling and you come flying into the Solar System, you can take a snapshot of where the planets are and figure out when it is.It moves like a giant clock a nd they were discovering this. These aren’t random or odd motions up in the sky, they are very regular. So God created a world that operates according to laws, natural law. This means that He does not need to intervene. They had their own sort of religious expression. They were called the Deists. Deism is sort of a natural religion. That is it’s based on observation of what we can see. Another element of this Enlightenment is the idea that we should be able to see the evidence for ourselves and judge it for ourselves. A movement away from authority.Before, if you wanted to prove a scientific theory, you would consult Hypocrites and Aristotle. You would put together your quotations, and it’s proven because you quoted the proper authorities. In religious matters, you quote the Bible, and the Bishops, and the theologians, the proper authorities. Now they say move toward your own individual ability. We see that somewhat also in the early stages of the Puritan moveme nt, but this is expressed very differently. If I turn down a light switch, it will turn the light off. If you turn the switch, will it do the same thing?If it is scientifically valid, it is universal; anybody can turn the light off. The one thing an experiment has to be is repeatable. The idea of special revelation goes away. We now have the appeal to general revelation. The goal is to have a religion based on stuff that is accessible to all of us. You don’t have to be in a certain place at a certain time; anybody anywhere can repeat this experiment. Social aspects: There was a rise of a trading community in the early eighteen century England. Most of the traders were Whigs and most of the landed gentry and nobility were Tories.The clash between these two parties was not only political but social two. Eighteen century is known in the social history of England for the rise of the middle classes with the unprecedented rise in trade and comers the English were becoming increasin gly wealthy and many hither to poor people were finding theme selves in the rank of respectable burgesses. These nouveaux riches were desirous of giving themselves and aristocratic touch by appearing to be learned and sophisticated like there traditional social superiors- the landed gentry and nobility.This class of readers had hitherto been neglected by high brow writers. the literary works previous to the eighteen century were almost in variably meant to be the reading of the higher strata of society. Only popular literature such as Ballad, catered for the lower rungs. The up and coming middle classes of the eighteen century demanded some new kind of literature which should be in conformity with there temper and be designed as well to voice there aspirations as to cater for there taste. England was than becoming a country of small and big traders and shop keepers.Some new type of literature of literature was demanded and this new type must expressed the new idle of the eighteen ce ntury, the value and the importance of the individuals life to tell men, not about knights to kings but about themselves, about their own thoughts and motives and struggles and the results of action upon their own characters. Religious aspects: The fact that religion is not only concerned with spirituality and morality but also with physical and psychological health is reflected in the teaching of most religious traditions in the world.Eighteen century was the age of the speared of natural religion or Deism. Deists believed in the existence of God but disbelieved in any revealed religion, not excepting Christianity. Even in religion, reason and nature ruled the roost. People were also talking about† natural morality† the doctrine of the reason loving deists were repudiated by arthropods ethnologists. Characteristics of eighteen century: 1. Reason and rationality 2. Realism and precision 3. Rise of periodical press 4. Rapid development of prose 5. Prosaic poetry 6. August an themes 7. Development of satire 8.Evolution of novel 9. Deficient in drama Reason and rationality: Pope and his followers gave much importance to reason in their modes of thinking and expressing. In the eighteen century reason was exalted. The main characteristic of neoclassical age is a general searching after rationality. This search which started in the age of Dryden culminated in the age of Pope. This reign of reason and common sense continued in to the middle of the century when the new ides and voices appeared and the precursors of the English romantics of the nineteenth century appeared on the scene.Al the important writers of the neoclassical age Swift, Pope and Dr. Johnson glorified reason. Realism and precision: The two main characteristics of the restoration period-Realism and precision were carried to further perfection during eighteen century. They are found in their excellent form in the poetry of Pope who perfected the heroic couplet and in the prose of Addison who developed it into a clear, precise and elegant form of expression. Rise of Periodical press: With the rise of the periodical press in the begging of the eighteen century, the essay took a long stride forward.Addison and Steele wrote social essays, their aim was social reform and to censor the manners and morals of the age, more particularly the frivolities of the female sex. Rapid development of prose: As eighteen century was the age of social, political and literary controversies in which the prominent writers took an active part and the large number of pamphlets, journals and magazines were brought out in order to cater to the growing need of the masters, who had began to read and take interest in these controversial matters.Poetry was considered inadequate for such a task and hence there was a rapid development of prose. Prosaic poetry: Infect poetry also had become prosaic because it was no longer used for lofty and sublime purposes but like prose its subject matter had become criticism , satire, controversy and it was also written in the form of essay which was the common literary form. The chief glory of the age was therefore not poetry but prose. It was the age of satiric and argumentative and reflective poetry. Hardly any lyric or sonnet worth mentioning belongs to the period.There is a growth of artificial poetic diction, and the language of poetry is cut off from the language of everyday use. Artificial themes: The Augustan literature was mainly intellectual and rational, deficient in emotion and imagination. It dealt exclusively with the artificial life of the upper classes of the city of London and its form and diction was as artificial as its theme. It had no feeling for nature and no feeling for those who lived out side the narrow confines of fashion able London society. Development of satire:Satire developed as a form of literature during this age. Mostly prose writers wrote satires on the contemporary issues. The aim was the social reformation and to criticize the attitudes and behaviors of the age. The Whigs and the Torries members of the two important political parties which were constantly contending to control the government of the country- used and rewarded the writers for satirizing their enemies and undermining their reputation. Evolution of novel: New literary form novel was developed.Realism of the age and development of the excellent prose style helped in the evolution of the novel. Between the period (1740 and 1800) novels of all kinds were written. Four main novelists of the eighteen centuries are Richardson, Smollett, Sterne and Fielding. Deficient in drama: Eighteen century was deficient in drama because the old puritanic against the theater continued and the court also withdrew its patronage. Gold Simith and Sheridan were the only writers who produced plays having literary merit. Literary Critics of the age:According to Oxford new English dictionary criticism is defined as† the art of estimating the qualities and character of literary or artistic work†. It also quotes Dryden’s definition of criticism as â€Å"a stander of judging well†. â€Å"Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. † (From An Essay on Criticism) Three major critics of the neoclassical age are Dryden, Pope, and Johnson. Dryden as a critic: As a student of the principles of criticism, Dryden broke entirely new grounds.He penetrated more deeply then any critic had yet done into the problem of the character of poetry, and the function and meaning of a conscious work of art. In his work we have not only criticism, but criticism becoming conscious of itself, analyzing its objects with sympathy and understanding, and knowing its purpose. He always had an open mid on all literary problems and refused to be influences by the pronouncements of the French critics like Boileau, who were bent on curtailing the freedom of literary composition as we ll as judgment.He found no harm in the mixture of tragedy and comedy which some English dramatists had attempted, nor did he blame the â€Å"variety and copiousness† of the English plays, simply because they did not conform to the French ideal of singleness of plot. Even to Aristotle he refused to render servile obedience. Though living in the age when Aristotle’s theories were widely admired, he had the courage to declare† â€Å"it is not enough that Aristotle had said so, for Aristotle drew his models of tragedy from Sophocles and Euripides; and, if he had seen ours, might have changed his mind. Dryden was the first critic to introduce the nation that literature is an organic force which develops with the development of a nation. It is not a static but dynamic force which expresses the impulse of each new age in a manner suited to its growth, and changes according to the change in the disposition of the people. The critic, therefore, should study the literatur e of an age in the context of its environment, and not follow blindly the rules laid down by the ancient critics like Aristotle.This, no doubt, was a revolutionary development in the field of criticism which in the seventeenth century was dominated by the classical school of critics. Though Dryden expressed his critical opinions in the prefaces to his own literary productions, in critical studies of great writers, as well as in some critical essays as Apology for Heroic Poetry, yet his greatest critical work in his famous. An essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668). It is the most ambitiously constructed critical document of his career and the most important for general literary theory.In his famous Essay,(on Dramatic poesy) Dryden has discussed a number of literary problems, but his main contribution to literary criticism is his further exploration of the principles of imitation and instruction. For Plato the poet’s world being a second-hand imitation of reality was worthless; for Ar istotle the poet could achieve a reality more profound than we meet in ordinary experience, by the proper selection and organization of incident; for Sidney, the poet created a world better than the real world, and thereby exerted an ennobling influence on his readers.None of these critics suggested that there is still another way in which a poet can deal with life, and that is to present it as it is. It was Dryden who made this obvious statement that a play or literature in general is â€Å"a just† or thoughtful image of human life. â€Å"a just and lively image of human nature, representing the passions and humors, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of making†. His achievement as a critic is, no doubt, considerable; and despite his lack of system, his inconsistencies and digressions, he has something substantial to offer to his own and later ages.He make an effective us of the psychological, comparative and historical m ethods in forming literary judgments. He was the first to point out the facts that time was the final test of literary values, and also to illustrate this doctrine by revealing fresh â€Å"beauties† as three of the greatest English poets – Chaucer, Spenser and Shakespeare. Though the was influenced by the critical doctrines of the ancients, yet he assimilated only those influences which found a response in his own nature and temperament.The secret of Dryden’s greatness as a critic lay in his native sensibility which made him keenly aware of artistic values, and helped him arrive at a dispassionate psychological analysis of those values. His judgment of Shakespeare and Chaucer was based on his own instructive reaction submitted to the test of Nature or reason, rather then on formal rules. It resulted from an imaginative sympathy and not merely from intellect. His criticism of literature was synthetic rather than analytical, and therefore he could view the effects observed with a critical insight which was akin to the creative vision.It helped him penetrate to the heart of things and find meaning and coherence in the multiplicity of those effects. Pope as a Critic: Pope’s major work was a series of four â€Å"Moral Essays† and a work which had nothing to do with satire, the Essay on Man. this last work deals mainly with the place of humankind with respect to the Creator, to his place in Creation, and his happiness. Some of the sentiments (notably those at the beginning of Epistle II) have justly become axiomatic: The Essay on Man was to have formed part of a series of philosophic poems on a systematic plan.The other pieces were to treat of human reason, of the use of learning, wit, education and riches, of civil and ecclesiastical polity, of the character of women Popes next publication was the Essay on Criticism, written two years earlier, and printed without the author’s name. In every work regard the writers end is on e of its sensible precepts, and one that is often neglected by critics of the essay, who comment upon it as if Popes end had been to produce an original and profound treatise on first principles.His Essay on Criticism established Pope as a significant poetic voice. It also prompted the first of many printed, personal attacks. John Dennis, a prominent critic whom Pope ridiculed in the Essay, aimed his venomous response at Pope’s ailing body, his character, and his religious faith. Joseph Addison, on the other hand, praised Pope for both insight and execution, and Samuel Johnson later hailed the poem for exhibiting â€Å"every mode of excellence that can embellish or dignify didactic composition† (Life of Pope).Windsor-Forest, The Rape of the Lock, and The Temple of Fame followed and confirmed Pope’s place among celebrated poets, a place marked again by the publication of The Works of Mr. Alexander Pope. Pope was only 29. The poetic essay was a relatively new genr e, and the â€Å"Essay† itself was Pope's most ambitious work to that time. It was in part an attempt on Pope's part to identify and refine his own positions as poet and critic, and his response to an ongoing critical debate which centered on the question of whether poetry should be â€Å"natural† or written according to predetermined â€Å"artificial† rules inherited from the classical past.His aim was simply to condense, methodize, and give as perfect and novel expression as he could to floating opinions about the poet’s aims and methods, and the critics duties, to what oft was thought, but near so well expressed . The town was interested in belle’s letters, and given to conversing on the subject; Popes essay was simply a brilliant contribution to the fashionable conversation Dr. Samuel Johnson: Samuel was such a dominant literary figure in the second half of the eighteenth century that the period has sometimes been called the Age of Johnson, liv ed most of his adult life in London.Until the crown granted him a pension in 1763, he had to support himself by his literary activity, including major projects such as the Dictionary of the English Language (1755) and his edition of the plays of Shakespeare (1765), as well as periodical essay series such as the Rambler (1750-52) and the Idler (1758-60), other separate publications such as the poem The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749) and the tale Rasselas (1759), and miscellaneous writing, mainly for a variety of periodicals. His last major literary project was the series Lives of the Poets (1779-81). whose still living writings are always ignored, a great honest man who will remain forever a figure of half fun because of the leechlike adoration of the greatest and most ridiculous of all biographers. For it is impossible not to believe that, without Boswell, Johnson for us today would shine like a sun in the heavens whilst Addison sat forgotten in coffee houses. † (from The March of Literature, 1938) – Although best remembered as the compiler of the first comprehensive English dictionary, Dr. Johnson was more than a scholar.Born at Lichfield and educated at Lichfield Grammar School and Pembroke College, Oxford, he moved to London in 1737 with his wife, Tetty, who was twenty years his senior, and began to earn a living as a journalist and critic, whilst working on plays, poetry and biographies. Johnson began A Dictionary of the English Language in 1747, but did not complete it until 1755. It made his name, but not his fortune. Another of his major works, the satire Rasselas (1759), was written specifically to raise money to pay for his mother's funeral.Johnson was at the centre of a literary circle which included such figures as Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund Burke and David Garrick. . Essays on his main works are complemented by thematic discussion of his views on the experience of women in the eighteenth century, politics, imperialism, religion, and trave l as well as by chapters covering his life, conversation, letters, and critical reception. Useful reference features include a chronology and guide to further reading.The keynote to the volume is the seamlessness of Johnson’s life and writing, and the extraordinary humane intelligence he brought to all his activities. Accessibly written by a distinguished group of international scholars, this volume supplies a stimulating range of approaches, making Johnson newly relevant for our time. Despite the consistency of his critical principles, Johnson's criticism is also very sensitive to the special circumstances of its origin. He unashamedly wrote to earn money.The form in which he wrote were those demanded by the occasion, and what he wrote was adapted to what was appropriate for that form. Johnson was willing to recalculate work already on hand, and sometimes this work may seem out of place in its new setting; but when composing he was keenly sensitive to what was appropriate to his present occasion. A reader approaching Johnson's criticism needs to cultivate an understanding of the demands set by each kind of piece that he wrote–prefaces, dedications, lives, notes, reviews, and separate essays.The reader also needs, if possible, to develop some sense of the context of literary discussion Johnson is joining, for although the particular topics he treats may be largely determined by this context, he is often much less explicit than a modern scholar would be about providing references to orient his reader in the controversy. His Shakespeare criticism provides a good example of most of these observations.While we are liable to find anywhere in it those gnomic statements that grow out of a full knowledge of literature and life, without a proper sense of the whole piece in which they occur we will not have a true idea of the weight Johnson intended them to have. Chronology of the writers of the age: Following is the list of the prominent writers of the ag e and their major works. 1. Daniel Defoe(1660-1731) for Robinson Crusoe 2. John Arbuthnot(1667-1735) for History of John Bull 1712 3. Jonathan Swift(1667-1745) for Gulliver’s Travels , A Tale of Tub . Addison(1672-1719) for the Spectator 5. Steele(1672-1729) for The Tatler 6. Alexander Pope(1688-1744) for Dunciad, Rape of The Lock 7. Dr. Johnson(1709-1784) for Preface to Shakespeare, Lives of the Poets 8. Oliver Gold Smith(1730-1774) for The Citizen of The World 9. Charles Churchill(1731-1864) 10. Edmund Burke(1729-1797) Main Novelist of Eighteenth Century: 1. Richardson(1689-1761) for Pamela 2. Fielding(1707-54) for Joseph Andrews 3. Smollett(1721-71) for Roderick Random 4. Sterne(1713_68) for Tristram Shandy

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Enterprise information systems For Microsoft - Assignment Example Rolls-Royce is a motor and energy producing company, which resumed its operations in the private sector in 1987. The company grew and acquired new other firms (Rolls-Royce 43). Today the company is global business enterprise offering solutions in power and motor supplies. Economic growth and internationalization of the enterprise’s operations necessitated an installation of ERP. The company chose to use an ERP software package called SAP R/3 (Yusuf, Angappa, and Mark 251). Such a move by the company targeted to internalize its operations and manage data flow for efficient operations. The firm also attained corporate management of its operations and integrated individual functional units in the finance and manufacturing sectors (Yusuf, Angappa, and Mark 252). The business had used more than 1500 systems before it installed the EPR project, most of which the firm developed internally (Yusuf, Angappa, and Mark 255). The initial units were expensive in terms of operations as well as difficult to maintain and improve. The systems did not provide consistent, accurate, and accessible information needed for timely decision-making. The old systems were also not suitable for modern operations in the corporate world. As a result, the business unit sold some of the aging systems and replaced it with a new one. Implementation of the project required an intervention of a team of experts outsourced from EDS. During the process, the team met with a number of challenges, which may fall into three categories. The first was cultural, which meant that the firm was to overhaul the whole old system with a new one considerably because they could not suit each other. Some departments within the company did not find it easy and consequently, they needed training (Yusuf, Angappa, and Mark 256). The next problem related to corporate operations. The new system required a rigid plan of business for a successful working. It means that the workers had to adjust their modes of working to

Business Risk in an Uncertain Global Economy Essay

Business Risk in an Uncertain Global Economy - Essay Example Thus, in the coming years, such an environment would potentially continue to disturb the business houses across the world. Therefore, so as to remain competitive and preserve their business in such competitive environment, companies have to ascertain that they respond spontaneously and are agile enough to adjust to the changing business environment (Economist Intelligent Intelligence Unit Limited, 2009). Consequently, in an atmosphere where businesses have to encounter continuous change, companies depend on strategic management of their business risk. In this regard, a number of business firms depend on long-term strategies, while on the other hand others rely on short-term policies to deal with the aggressive and demanding business atmosphere (Oliver Wight International, 2008). This paper would focus on the challenges and risks associated in conducting business in an uncertain global economy. The risks can be of various forms and they can be inherent as well as can arise from the di fferent strategies adopted by the business organizations. In addition to comprehending the associated risks and challenges of operating in an unstable economic environment, this paper would emphasize on the various techniques used by financial managers to tackle such business risks while trading and investing in nations outside the firm’s home country. Global Challenges faced in an unstable economic environment As already discussed, business organization can adopt either short term or long term strategies. Both long term and short-term management policies plays a vital role in the efficient business market. However, the business policies that emphasize on escalating the near-term returns are also likely to threaten the enduring financial value of the business by taking up considerable risks and taking in short-range thinking in the business and its numerous operating segments. This is predominantly accurate for firms functioning in the financial industry. The short-term busin ess outlook of companies makes it critical to encounter and tackle the challenges of operating in unstable global economy and can be highly detrimental for the companies themselves. Several researches have illustrated that a vast number of chief financial officers would abstain from possible future economic value in order to realize the investor eagerness and expectations for immediate positive returns. In majority of the cases, the systemic risks, wide-ranging impacts and irreversible costs of short-term management policies are being rated too low or underestimated (Forum for the Future, 2011). To put it in simpler terms, the tangible gains that can be acquired in the immediate future by the execution of short-term policies by and large make the business firms, principally those functioning in the financial services industry to neglect the long-term intangible gains that could help in the enduring sustainability of the firm. In general, it has been widely stated that a big number o f companies have started following a short-term thinking style. However, Brochet et al., (2012) have stated in their editorial named, â€Å"

Labour Governments measures to mitigate truancy in the U.K Essay

Labour Governments measures to mitigate truancy in the U.K - Essay Example From this research it is clear that truancy has been described as the absence of students from school without a valid reason. The duration of non – attendance varies from a single class to many weeks. Several reasons exist for such truant behaviour and bravado, depression, retention by the parents in order to supervise younger children at home, etc, are some of the usual reasons. Parentally approved absence from school poses a major quandary and endures despite the instructions of the 1996 Education Act that such absence could be sanctioned only by the school authorities. Moreover, several of the some of the seemingly credible reasons given by parents to account for the absence of their children from school are dubious. It has been observed that forty thousand students abstain from school each day without proper authorization. During the overhaul of the educational system in order to make available education and training to youth between fourteen to nineteen years of age, the Government of the United Kingdom proposed that there should be an incorporation of flexibility in the syllabus and that there should be an enhancement of the status of vocational training. Investment on its own is incapable of ensuring an education of a high standard. The requirement is to combine reform with investment. Some of the reforms that have been implemented, in order to achieve this objective, are specialist schools, literacy and numeracy strategies, superior vocational education and the right to adult skills training.

Money management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Money management - Essay Example If I invest the KD 500,000 with a life insurance company then I may be able to earn a stable income each year with adjustments for inflation. Based on discussions with my insurance company the following table reflects the amount that I would receive if I invest in an insurance policy that makes adjustments for inflation and pays my estate the balance of my policy at death. Table 1 in Appendix 1 provides the necessary information. The table shows an initial investment of KD 500,000 and indicates that over a 20 year period and assuming a 3.5% rate of interest and an inflation rate of 3%, I would be able to have an inflation adjusted income of KD 15,000 in year 1 continuing to $26,302 payment in year 20. The table only shows 20 years because I assume that the number of years that I will live after retirement is approximately 20. This policy however, continues as long as I am alive. The balance on the account at year 20 suggests that there will be sufficient funds for me to earn an income many years after year 20. In fact, my principal amount only starts declining in year 12 suggesting that I will be paid out of interest earned on the investment only up to year 11. After year 11 the payments will start affecting my principal. My total receipt up to year 20 would be KD 403045.62 with a balance on the account of KD 443,861.55. This indicates a net return of KD 346,907.17 ((KD 403,045.62 + KD 443,861.55) – KD 500,000). In the event that I choose to manage the funds personally then I would be able to make earnings at rates between 3 to 7 per cent. This fund would consist of a mixture of bonds and stocks with at least 60% of the funds in stocks. I would use the income generated from the fund n the first year – year 1 as a basis to determine my future income if I am to maintain the same standard of living. I therefore allow for an inflation rate of 3% as with the life insurance option. Table 2 in Appendix 1 provides information on this fund. An average rate of

Essay in 3 part Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

In 3 part - Essay Example I think education grooms a person, and if the education discipline is that in which one wants to pursue a career, then there remains practically nothing between success and the person, assuming he puts in all his efforts into his work. Studying business management would not only allow me to understand various theories that underpin how businesses are managed, but would also allow me to learn from real life experiences of people, that I could later use to my help when I start my career. Moreover, almost all business management courses have an internship requirement before graduation, and that I believe, is the perfect time when young business graduates get to apply theoretical knowledge at work and get hands on experience with real life scenarios. Once I get done with my Bachelors’ Degree in Business Management, I would have a lot of career opportunities lying in front of me. To start off with, I would ideally want to start my own company from scratch and take it to the verge of success. However, sometimes situations arise that cause a deviation from the prime plan; in these circumstances too I believe having studied business management I would be open to a wide array of jobs around the globe. A look down business management graduates tell us that they have been able to discover innumerable career opportunities in all fields of work, including accounting, finance, human resource, supply chain management and various others. In this section I would be comparing the university where I would be pursuing my education from, Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU), against another university which teaches the discipline that I would be pursuing; Manchester Metropolitan University Coventry University (MMU). LJMU gives a rough timeline of completion of the BA Hons Degree in Business Management as three years, while CU also gives a similar time frame for degree completion. A look at the course structure of the two programs also proves that both of

Moral Standards in the 1960s-1970s Essay Example for Free

Moral Standards in the 1960s-1970s Essay The English social activist Constance Mary Whitehouse was often renowned for her opposition to social liberalism and mainstream media, which she often claimed to be root cause of a more permissive society in Britain. Although, the extent to which we can deem this view valid is debatable. There is evidence leaning on both sides of the argument; but of course it is unquestionable that Britain did see a sudden uprising of permissiveness and overt moral decline to which Whitehouse responded briskly, founding and setting up the ‘National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association’ via which she campaigned against the BBC n the 60’s. The question is; was she justified in going to these lengths to essentially try and censor media? Surely, if she injected such a vast amount of effort into doing so, then she must have some sort of validity in her view? Or perhaps, there were other factors which she did not take into account. The notion of Television being the main medium of influence of this period is irrefutable, with 95% of British households owning one by the end of the 1960s. Although the fact that the government set up the Committee of Inquiry on Broadcasting could in itself suggest that media had partial censorship (thus disallowing any real explicit broadcasts which could lead to a moral decline), they did little to stop, and actually welcomed the hard-hitting ‘social realist’ plays such as ‘up the junction (1965)’ and ‘Come Home Cathy (1966)’, as they were a replacement for the supposedly ‘vulgar’ American style programmes on ITV such as ‘Take Your Pick (1958-66)’ and the Westerns/Crime Dramas which they feared would erode British culture and make people more violent. Though, these plays did could be argued to have ‘worsened’ the situation as, for example, ‘Up the Junction’ depicted quite a graphic and powe rful home abortion scene, and it is suggested that this may have been one of the causes of the 1967 Abortion Act to be passed; which of course consequently lead to relaxation in attitudes towards sex as there was now an passage, or a ‘life-line’ a woman could use if any accidental impregnation occurred, thus increasing levels of promiscuity. Furthermore, in ‘a taste of honey’ (also part of this social realism movement that swept through theatres in the 60’s), as well as abortion again being key factor in it, there is also an occurrence of a ‘one night stand’, not an ordinary one night stand however, an interracial one night stand. Although this was a very extreme case of moral rebellion, critically it could have lead to the British public to perceiving promiscuity as well as interracial relationships (seen as immoral, abnormal at this time) to be more acceptable, a norm. In other words, the British public would in theory be bellowing â€Å"if she can do it, why can’t I?!† . The Press also have a part to play in this; they contributed largely to a new permissive air in the media when they initiated their launch of colour supplements, sexualised adverts and scandalous news stories and significantly the first female nipple was published by media tycoon Rupert Murdoch who believed this would help the circulation of his paper, The Sun. This conveys the extent to which media was now overtly promoting permissiveness, and could suggest that this directly influenced a more permissive society as the public were fully exposed to these new developments which eased them into a new, more open and bold mind set. Conversely, there is evidence to suggest that Media was not only responsible for the ‘decline in moral standards’, as quoted by Whitehouse. Touching back onto the subject of ‘press’, although it did absolutely encourage some air permissiveness, the Obscene Publications Acts of 1959 and 1964 to an extent conflict that view. These acts were designed to ‘strengthen’ law around public obscenity, in particular the publication of obscene articles and materials used in them. This could thus suggest that there were in fact some restrictions on media, and that they couldn’t possibly fully hold the blame for arousal of permissiveness and decline in moral standards in this period. Additionally, although the ‘powerful’ scene in ‘Up the Junction’ could be blamed for the passing of the Abortion Act in 1967,it is commonly known that it only eased the passage of it, and it was primarily David Steel’s campaign that led the way to this debatably radical change. Prior to the Abortion Act, there were approximately 106,000 illegal abortions a year, and many were sceptical about the idea that the number of abortions would increase when the act was passed as they believed although people had the freedom, it wouldn’t necessarily mean they would exercise it. They were wrong, after a year in 1968 the number of abortions per annum rose by 35,000 to 141,000 a year. This strongly suggests that the Abortion Act itself influenced a more permissive and unmoral society as it offered more freedom to the public in regards to sex and promiscuity. Prior to the passing of the Divorce Act of 1969, divorce was only permitted when there was sufficient evidence exhibiting that one party of the relationship had committed adultery, and statistics show that there were few than two divorces per 1000 married couples. The Divorce Reform Act allowed couples to divorce if they had lived apart for two years and both wanted it or if they had lived apart for five years and one partner wanted it. Following the reform there was a huge increase in the number of divorces, by the mid-1970s nearly one in every two marriages ended in divorce. Although it could be argued that this was due to the growing independence of women, it’s hard to deny that the act had a large effect on this. This thus indicates to us that media was not entirely responsible for the lack or decline of moral standards as legislation such as this, did essentially promote more promiscuity as it gave married couples the freedom to split up and do as they please. In analysing the range of factors, we can conclude that Mary Whitehouse’s view that the media was responsible for the morale decline of the 60’s and 70’s was somewhat valid, as there are a spectrum of sources and pieces of evidence that intrinsically link together and in turn paint a picture where the British society are heavily influenced by media. This was perhaps due to fact that the public at this time, and still to this day, are heavily consumed by the media and are enthralled in its controversy, and although it may not have so much of a profound effect on us today it is obvious people of that period were more vulnerable to it as just coming out of a period of Austerity and slight deprivation, more likely than not they were seeking for something new something fresh, something that kept up with the social norms of other major influences such as America- and perhaps unfortunately, these new trends often entailed social rebellion and permissiveness. And althoug h legislation had a part to play in it, this only ensured de jure change, not always de facto, where as media more times out of 10 had de facto and more profound effect on the British society of the 1960s/70s.